Fire Salamanders
A spotted Fire Salamander (S. s. salamandra) (Image by Jordan Rapp).
Halloween is right around the corner, and what better animal could get us in the spooky spirit than the Fire Salamander? Their ecology and physiological adaptations, as well as the folklore surrounding these vibrant amphibians contribute to their mystical aura. When starting a fire in the past, Fire Salamanders were found to crawl out of the logs tossed into the fire. Folklore and superstition suggested that these salamanders can survive fire or that their poisonous skin can extinguish a fire [1,3]. Of course, their sensitive skin can do no such thing, but their mysterious emergence from a fire lent them their name!
The Fire Salamander was first classified in 1758 by Carl von Linné, also known as Carl Linneas or the father of modern taxonomy [1,2]. In fact, Fire Salamanders may have been one of the first animals that were examined in nature by modern science [4]. While there are 13 subspecies, there are two main species— Salamandra salamandra salamandra (yes, you read that correctly) which is a spotted variety and Salamandra salamandra terrestris which is striped [1,2].
Fire Salamanders range from central and southern Europe to even parts of northern Africa and the Middle East [3]. Often found in hilly and mountainous regions, they inhabit moist deciduous forests [1,3]. Fire Salamanders are selective of when they emerge from their woodland hiding places, only becoming active when the temperature is mild and there is enough humidity to avoid drying out. During dry conditions or midday, Fire Salamanders remain hidden on the forest floor under foliage, logs, stumps, and rocks. Most often, they manifest in the night and are especially fond of rainy weather. After a rainy excursion, Fire Salamanders typically return to their moist and shaded abode, maintaining a rather small range from home [1] and possibly follow visual landmarks and some olfactory cues to navigate their journey home [3].
Their homes can also include the dark, moist crevices of underground cavities like caves and mine tunnels. Fire Salamanders were even named the 2023 “Cave Animal of the Year” by the German Speleological Society. While they sometimes wander into caves, alas, they occasionally accidentally drop into pits and are unable to escape the cave. Fear not, for the Fire Salamanders can survive well within the dark, humid caves, feasting on invertebrates that also fall into the cave [2]. Fire Salamanders eat a variety of prey including earthworms, slugs, beetles, millipedes, centipedes, and flies. When there is light, they may track prey movement and ignore stationary prey; whereas, in the dark, they hunt using olfactory cues [3].
A striped Fire Salamander (S. s. terrestris) in Bad Urach, Germany.
Aside from hedgehogs, rats, badgers, wild boars, foxes, raccoons, snakes, or birds, Fire Salamanders have few natural predators due to their vibrant warning pattern and toxicity [1,4]. Utilizing aposematic coloration, their bright yellow spots against the otherwise black skin warns predators of their toxicity [3]. The amount of yellow coloration does not correlate to their level of toxicity. Toxicity develops with age, leaving larvae toxin-free and even more vulnerable to predation [1]. Before releasing their toxic secretions, they first perform defensive postures to dissuade the predator from attacking; lowering their head to display their toxic glands, mild biting, and vocalizations may all be used as a first line of defense [4]. If that proves ineffective, the neurotoxins are secreted from the ear glands and dorsal glands, spreading over the skin. Instead of attempting to escape once their predator realizes they are an unpleasant meal, they can even actively spray the toxins at their predator (up to 200cm or 6.5ft) to prevent an attack [4,1,3].
If eaten, their toxicity can be lethal even to larger mammals like dogs. Once their poison enters the bloodstream it causes diastolic cardiac arrest or respiratory paralysis. Otherwise it can cause restlessness, changes in pupil diameter, weakened reflexes, weakened breathing, irregular heartbeat, hind leg paralysis, convulsions, and vomiting. In this case, vomiting is desirable to expel the poisonous salamander. Typically, if they are attacked, they are spat out due to their bad taste. Luckily, touching a Fire Salamander’s skin is not usually harmful to humans, though it may sting in an open wound [1].
A Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma maculatum), native to eastern North America. Despite the vast geographic distance, the Fire Salamander and Spotted Salamander share physical similarities including a vibrant coloration.
Although Fire Salamanders do not pose an immediate danger to humans, their toxicity has been well known since ancient times and has contributed to their myth and folklore. The Roman author Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus) described Fire Salamanders as “the most wicked of all venomous animals” in antiquity. In the Middle Ages, Fire Salamanders were linked to witchcraft and alchemy, and a medieval author also noted their potential medical use. Throughout periods of history, Fire Salamander poison was utilized as an ethno-pharmaceutical treatment for various diseases. To treat pain or fever, salamanders were made to crawl over a patient’s clothes three times. For wasting diseases, patients carried special bags of salamanders, and salamander skin was even laid on women’s thighs as a form of birth control. Even in the mid-19th century, two French doctors prescribed highly diluted salamander toxins to treat epilepsy; although, these medical applications became obsolete soon after [4].
Not only do their neurotoxins protect Fire Salamanders from predation, but they also provide antimicrobial protection against bacterial infections [1,4]. Within the salamander’s mucosome— the combination of amphibian secretions and microbial communities on the amphibian’s skin— there may be a symbiotic relationship with microbes that provide this protection. While this creates an important layer of defense, unfortunately skin diseases from chytrid fungi have been devastating amphibian populations in recent decades. The Asian skin fungus Bsal (Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans) has led Fire Salamander populations in Belgium, Germany, and the Netherlands to go extinct. Salamanders exchange oxygen and water through their skin, and Bsal causes lesions and ulcers on the skin, which may hinder these processes and lead to their death. It is uncertain why the beneficial mucosome microbes cannot adequately mitigate Bsal infection. However, further research on the salamander mucosome could provide essential insight to help protect Fire Salamander populations from extinction [4].
Furthermore, disruption and destruction of their habitats are another concern for Fire Salamander populations, which can exacerbate their already struggling populations. The conversion of forests to agricultural land or the conversion of deciduous forests to coniferous forests decreases their habitat size, and the creation of extra paths and roads in forests fragments their habitat. The destruction of spring creeks, obstructions in the water, artificial stocking of fish in larval water, and water pollution from the overfertilization of agricultural land are all ways in which Fire Salamander populations are harmed in the water as well [1]. Fire Salamanders are very loyal to their home range, hence these disturbances can have a huge impact [3]. Habitat preservation would not only support Fire Salamander populations, particularly as they fight lethal Bsal infections, but it would also help keep forests safe and beautiful for all creatures including you and I.
While not a Pennsylvanian amphibian, I hope you enjoyed learning about the mythical Fire Salamander with me. I was thrilled to see them in person when I first arrived in Germany. On a rainy hike to the top of a waterfall, hundreds of Fire Salamanders littered the ground. One had to be careful to watch their step, as to not step on the sea of Fire Salamanders soaking up the cool autumnal rain. It was quite a site to see and an equal joy to learn more about their unique ecology and lore.
Written by Faith Forry — October 25, 2024
[1] https://amphibienschutz.org/en/firesalamander/
[2] https://hoehlentier.de/en/fire-salamander/
[3] https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Salamandra_salamandra/
[4] https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tim-Lueddecke/publication/327425900_A_salamander's_toxic_arsenal_review_of_skin_poison_diversity_and_function_in_true_salamanders_genus_Salamandra/links/5bf2d3b992851c6b27cacbb1/A-salamanders-toxic-arsenal-review-of-skin-poison-diversity-and-function-in-true-salamanders-genus-Salamandra.pdf
Mating Behavior: A male approaches a female and nudges her with his head. Once achieving a mating grip, the male Fire Salamander rubs its head back and forth on the female’s chin. After half an hour or longer, the male deposits a sperm packet (spermatophore) on the ground, and the female picks it up with her cloaca. Within the following weeks, the eggs are then fertilized internally, and gestation takes 2-7 months. Most Fire Salamanders are ovoviparous (larval birth, into water), although some are viviparous (live young birth, not requiring water). Typically, 20-40 larvae are born at a time in the spring, and Fire Salamanders don’t reach sexual maturity until 3-6 years old [1]. (Photos and video by Faith Forry)
